Practitioners in the infant/family field are often asked to teach or present on some aspect of our work. Some of us eventually view teaching or training as our primary role. I have come to recognize just how critical it is to pay very close attention to how we teach infant/family professionals and paraprofessionals--not only because our field embraces such a large knowledge base but, perhaps more importantly, because our work includes such a powerful emotional component.

I try to think of my training as modeling the connection between our intellectual and emotional sides. Whether I am preparing a presentation for graduate students or doing inservice training for Head Start, there are certain key principles that I use, not only to make my training as effective as possible but also to provide a structure which allows me to fully enjoy what I'm doing.

In this article, I would like to share training approaches and strategies that I have found particularly useful over the years. I will refer briefly to some pertinent adult learning literature and then highlight specific ideas that can focus and sharpen our training.

Thoughts on adult learning

In the past few years, I have become very interested in research about adult learning. Kolb (1976) identified four basic modes of learning-concrete experience (feeling); abstract conceptualization (thinking, analyzing); active experimentation (doing, practicing); and reflective observation (watching, reflecting). Although no one learns through only one mode, each individual tends to have a preferred style of learning that emphasizes one or two particular modes. In training, it is important to provide a variety of instructional experiences that address the preferred modes represented in any audience. Likewise, trainers need to be aware of their preferred learning style, since there is a tendency to teach primarily in that personally comfortable mode.

Research also tells us that we gain 7 percent of what we learn through hearing, 87 percent through seeing. That statistic should dispel our notion that listening is the primary domain for learning, and that lecturing is the primary domain for teaching. We remember 20 percent of what we hear, 30 percent of what we see, and 50 percent of what we hear and see when tested for immediate recall. How much more might we all retain if we regularly discussed and reflected on what we see and hear and had an opportunity to practice and process what we have heard and seen in an active way?

These data suggest that to be effective teachers, we have to develop teaching styles that appeal to adults with different learning styles. This principle is no less important for teaching adults than for teaching children. It applies to 20-minute panel presentations as well as all-day seminars. The more we concentrate and reflect on adult learning, the higher the probability we will be successful in our teaching efforts.

Guidelines for preparing effective presentations

Teach to your strengths. It is natural that we prefer certain teaching formats rather than others. We may find that we're quite comfortable in the give-and-take of a small group but rather ill-at-ease before a large audience. 0ur most natural and authentic teaching style may emerge in the process of teaching with colleagues rather than presenting alone. We may feel entirely competent in using a variety of audiovisual materials in presentations or prefer to use only slides as a reliable visual aid. It was a relief to me, as an occupational therapist and special educator who has been involved in a great deal of teaching over the years, to be assured by someone whose opinion I respected, that I don't have to be equally skilled in all modes of teaching. For example, participating on a panel is for me like pushing a rope -- a real struggle. On the other hand, I quite enjoy, as do many others, presenting to large audiences and experimenting with a wide variety of audiovisual materials to enrich and reinforce my words. Regardless of our particular strengths, we need to build a repertoire of teaching skills to enhance them.

Clarify teaching goals. My first step in preparing for a session is to ask: What do I hope to accomplish? What do I want participants to learn, feel, be able to do as a result of their time with me? What do participants think they are going to get? If it's a conference, where am I on the program and how does my session fit into the larger context of the training? Do I primarily want to motivate the audience, impart exciting new information, teach specific skills? What two or three things do I hope the audience will gain? All these questions need to be answered in the planning stage. This takes time!

Know the audience. I try to find out as much as I can about the audience. I want to know which disciplines they represent and something about what their responsibilities are so that I can incorporate their past experiences in my teaching. It is deadly to listen to a speaker who is unattuned to the makeup of the audience and it is unlikely that much learning will occur in this situation. I want to be able to relate my knowledge base directly to the trainees' knowledge base and their current and past experiences.

Set the right tone. The opening moments of any presentation set the tone for what is to come. I usually want my tone to be conversational and the content applied and practical rather than strictly theoretical. The issue is to ensure that content is substantive. I value the audience's time and want to use it well. I generally prepare material that is appropriately advanced and challenging so that the audience is stretching forward. In addition to offering some new and stimulating ideas that the audience can take home and immediately put to good use, I try to establish a respectful learning environment in which everyone's background and experience has meaning. I convey the belief that everyone there, including me, can both receive and impart new perspectives and insights and can challenge ideas. This is often accomplished through an experiential, rather than a didactic, approach given the nature of our work. Infant/family practitioners are called upon to constantly interact and build relationships with others-children, families, other professionals. Our teaching can honor and support their work by modeling a reflective and open teaching style. I am convinced that a reflective teaching style leads to reflective learning which then leads to a more reflective practice. Not only is it important what I teach but also how I teach. How can my teaching help the audience explore what it means to become a competent partner with families in support of the healthy development of infants and toddlers?

Develop good handouts. Participants in training are often consumed with getting every word down on paper. This inhibits them from participating with me in thinking through issues and exchanging perspectives. Written instructional materials free participants from worrying that they won't "get it all" and they free teachers from worrying about not being able to cover all the information. I am less interested in getting through a lot of material than in engaging participants in reflecting on new ideas and approaches. So, I believe in a lot of handouts. I talk about what is in the handouts at the very beginning of the presentation so that participants can direct their attention to the content and process of teaching and they will be assured of leaving the session with a study guide. Basically, human memory is weak for the retention of information. Handouts keep the information accessible over time to aid the integration into practice.

The content of the handouts will depend on the presentation topic but, as a general rule, it is preferable to err on the side of too much information than too little. Some should be targeted at a more advanced level than the presentation itself in order to try to match diverse knowledge and skill levels in the audience. Important diagrams, charts, and tables that are presented through slides and transparencies should also be distributed as handouts. A good bibliography is a must. When the material is reviewed, a humorous handout or two brings back the emotional tone of the session itself and encourages further learning.

Develop a "tight" presentation structure. I often experiment with a number of different ways of organizing a presentation before I settle on the one that seems best suited to a particular audience and situation. Developing a clear organizational structure facilitates my development of training and provides clarity about the session to participants. The introduction is the ideal place to lay out this structure. It prepares the audience for what will be discussed as well as for what will not be covered. It also helps us decide, among a wealth of ideas and materials we could share, which three or four key points we want people in the audience to remember when they leave.

A typical structure for presentations in our field examines theory, assessment, and treatment. For example, for a presentation on cerebral palsy, motor development is often covered first, followed by assessment procedures, and, lastly, a discussion of medical and therapeutic intervention. Sometimes it is effective to vary that order to provide a new or different perspective on a topic. For example, the presentation on cerebral palsy could begin with assessment participants observe videotapes and describe the motor functioning of the children. These observations could then lead to a discussion of motor development and the theoretical basis of motor control. From there, treatment could be addressed.

As we sift through our ideas and materials, we will organize them in the most logical and natural way as a start. Then, we can go back, challenge the structure we have and think about whether another way of presenting the topic might be more dramatic or appealing to a particular audience.

Design a format to support the structure. Whatever framework we decide on, we need a lively format to support it. The format may include the use of icebreakers, previews, recaps, and a variety of training techniques meant to enhance learning.

Icebreakers

Beginning and ending a session on time are signs of respect. Icebreakers are of immense value in getting off to a good start in a presentation. I like to begin my training with a provocative statement about infants and toddlers, an interesting or startling statistic about the audience, or a humorous anecdote or video about life in general. Humor is a wonderful way to loosen people up, to make a point, and to establish the beginning of a relationship with the audience. Questions, with a show of hands, help the audience find out who they are and provide useful on-the-spot information for the speaker. Making a promise to the audience about what will have happened by the end of the session underscores the fact that the trainer is serious about this session. Whatever we choose to use, it should suit our teaching style and personality and evoke a reaction that has some connection to the presentation.

Previews and recaps

The icebreaker can immediately be followed by a preview of what the session is about and what kinds of activities the audience can expect. It is a good idea, at least once during the presentation and again at the end, to recap what has been covered to that point and preview what is left to do. At the very end, a brief, pithy review helps participants solidify their sense of how the session fit together and the primary points the speaker is emphasizing.

Frequent changes of pace and activity

A cardinal rule for trainers is that every fifteen minutes or so the training activity should be changed and the audience given an opportunity to join in. This requires trainers to do some transitioning but prevents us from continuing too long in one teaching mode and underscores my belief in the value of active participation by the audience. I might show a videotape of a baby and caregiver and ask participants to observe and comment on a specific interaction. (In a very large group, the "comments" can be a moment for self reflection.) I might use any one of a number of small group exercises designed to help participants explore their own responses to particular situations with infants and families. I often use very quick anecdotes from my own practice to illustrate a point and ask the audience for their reactions. Whatever we choose, the point is to encourage participants to actively process and internalize what is being presented.

Anecdotes and case studies

Anecdotes can be very useful in almost any presentation. I deliberately chose ones which clearly illustrate a point and which have high emotional content so that they connect directly with the experiences of the audience. Anecdotes have the added benefit of giving participants a glimpse into the trainer's perspective and work outside the teaching experience itself. I spend considerable time writing down anecdotes that occur during my clinical work that I think might be useful in training. Some of my vignettes are composites of anecdotes told by others and integrated with my own experiences. These vignettes are specifically designed to make a pedagogical statement. Case studies require much more time and can best be used when there is a sufficient period for discussion. They can facilitate an exploration of complex topics and encourage a deeper level of thinking about perplexing issues faced by infant/family practitioners.

Visual aids

Visual aids--videotapes, slides, and transparencies--can add a rich element to training when the trainer is clear about why a particular medium is being used and makes sure that it is both appropriate and well prepared. We have all participated in training where we could only make out a line or two on a transparency. The print on overheads, for example, has to be sufficiently large and clear to be easily read by everyone in the room. How many times have we heard ourselves mumble apologies to those at the back about the size of the print! Videotapes must have clear images and good sound and be cued to the right place. There are no shortcuts to producing high-quality audiovisual materials. However, the results are well worth the effort. They offer a wealth of support to the spoken word and can communicate a great deal in a short period of time I carefully decide which ones would enhance my teaching and exactly when to use them. I often plan a paced sequence of slides, overheads, and videotapes to structure my presentation. Care is taken, however, to avoid switching frequently among media and thus getting "tripped up" by the technical logistics. Slides are my favorite, since they provide such structure, are very helpful for reinforcing information, and lend themselves to almost any kind of presentation. Other trainers could not get through a presentation without using videos to vividly illustrate what they are saying. Whatever choices we make, becoming skilled in developing and using a variety of visual materials takes time and practice.

Audience questions

Allowing or encouraging questions from the audience as they naturally occur during the session can provide useful changes in pace. Some trainers prefer to take questions all at one time, however, and this can often result in a longer, richer discussion than one at a time. Conducting a successful question-and-answer period takes skill. Sample issues include: How to clarify ambiguous questions; how to broaden an individual-specific question to a more generic issue that is relevant to the entire group; and how to manage the individual who is demanding excessive time.

This article provides guidelines for preparing effective presentations. It emphasizes that how we teach and what we teach are both critically important. Having the subject matter content is not the same as having the skills to teach it. In a recent survey, speaking in public was rated as the number one fear of Americans--ahead of heights, financial problems, and death. I rather imagine it is because they do not have the how.

Selected references

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Bachrach, L.L. (1989). The legacy of model programs. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 40, 234-235.

Briggs, K.C. & Myers, I.B. (1983). Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

Dunst, C., Trivette, C., & Deal, A (1988). Enabling and empowering families: Principles and guidelines for practice. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.

Dyer, W.G. (1987). Team building: Issues and alternatives (2nd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Eggbeer, L., Fenichel, E., Pawl, J., Shanok, R.S., & Williamson, G.G. (1994).Innovative strategies for teaching relationship concepts and skills to infant/family professionals. Infants and Young Children.

Foley, G.M., Hochman, J.D., & Miller, S. (1994). Parent-professional relationships: Finding an optimal distance: Zero To Three,14,19-22.

Hazel, R., Barber, P.A.., Roberts, S., Behr, S.K., Helmstetter, E., & Guess, D. A community approach to an integrated service for children with special needs. Baltimore: Paul Brookes.

Kagen, S.L., & Neville, P R. (1994). Parent choice in early care and education: Myth or reality? Zero To Three, 14,11-18.

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Mattingly C. & Garro, L. (1994). Narrative representations of illness and healing: Introduction. Special issue. Social Science and Medicine, 38, 771-774.

Myers, P.B. & Myers, K.D. (1985). Manual: A guide to the development and use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

Robertson, S.C. (1992). Find a mentor or be one. Rockville, MD: American Occupational Therapy Association.

Rogers, E.M. (1983). Diffusion of innovation (3rd ed). New York: The Free Press.

Stern, D.N. (1985). The interpersonal world of the infant: A view from psychoanalysis and developmental psychology. New York: Basic Books.

Summers, J.A., Dell'Oliver, C., Turnbull, A.P, Benson, H.A., Santalli, E., Campbell, M., & Siegel-Causey, E. (1991) Examining the Individualized Family Service Plan Process: What are family and practitioner preference? Topics in Early Childhood Special Education,10, 78-99.

Zeitlin, S. (1985). Coping Inventory: A measure of adaptive behavior (Self rated form). Bensenville, IL: Scholastic Testing Service.

Zeitlin, S. & Williamson, G.G. (1994). Coping in young children: Early intervention practices to enhance adaptive behavior and resilience. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

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